The ETS Research Report Series features peer-reviewed articles based on measurement and education research conducted by the scientists at ETS. Our reports have been available to teachers, policy makers, and the general public since our first volume was published in 1948. Topics range from English language learning and mathematics skills to teacher preparedness and workforce development to assessments and artificial intelligence. Articles are published in three sections: reports, memoranda, and notes. Issues prior to 2025 are available on the Wiley Online Library. Our staff includes Executive Editor Daniel F. McCaffrey, Lord Chair in Measurement and Statistics, and more than a dozen associate editors. Our full backlist is available at the Wiley Online Library.
Identifying High-Leverage Practices for Guiding the Development of Teaching Assessments
This report identifies eight high-leverage practices (HLPs) for teaching that are intended for use in guiding the development of a next generation of teaching assessments. The identified HLPs are drawn from an existing framework that provides empirical and theoretical research backing for 34 HLPs that make up the work of teaching. The report describes the methods used to select a subset of eight HLPs and provides initial recommendations for the assessment methods that are most appropriate for each of these eight HLPs.
Copyright (c) 2026 Educational Testing Service https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
AI Competencies for Teaching: From Conceptual Frameworks to Enacted Practices
As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes increasingly embedded in educational systems, teachers face new expectations for engaging AI as part of their instructional work and professional responsibilities. This paper argues that clarifying AI competencies for teaching requires more than listing skills: it requires a coherent account of (1) what these competencies involve, (2) how they are enacted in practice, and (3) what evidence can support teacher learning and professional judgment over time. We conceptualize these integrated capacities as AI competencies for teaching and distinguish them from broader notions of AI literacy by emphasizing application, professional judgment, and context sensitivity. Drawing on trends in how AI is reshaping teaching, we introduce a framing of AI’s roles in education (as tool, content, and context) to specify the instructional demands to which our current understanding of teaching competencies must respond. We then summarize features of existing competency frameworks to surface shared foundations and key tensions related to ethics, technical depth, professional agency, and domain specificity. We describe six interrelated domains of AI competencies for teaching, spanning AI content knowledge, AI technologies, pedagogical integration, ethical awareness, professional judgment and agency, and openness to continuous learning. To illustrate what these competencies look like in use, we present a scenario that makes teachers’ instructional decision-making visible when AI is present. Finally, we discuss progress-oriented, evidence-centered approaches, including implications for assessment, that can support teachers’ development of these competencies. This work ultimately positions AI competencies for teaching as central to sustaining ethically grounded, responsible, and professionally empowering teaching in AI-mediated educational environments. Suggested citation: Ober, T. M., Tenison, C., Phelps, G., Renfrow-Symon, E., Mikeska, J., & Dean, V. J. (in press). AI competencies for teaching: From conceptual frameworks to enacted practices. ETS Research Report Series. https://doi.org/10.64634/z5j3ts49
The Relationship Between the TOEFL iBT® Test and Academic Writing Practices in English-Medium Universities in South Asia: Case Studies From Bangladesh, India, and Nepal
Acknowledging that all sections of the TOEFL iBT® test should be used for admissions decisions, this study focuses specifically on the potential of the TOEFL iBT Writing section as one component of entry screening for English-medium undergraduate business and engineering programs at six universities in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Using a mixed-methods approach, researchers collected data from 180 first-year students and 24 teachers through TOEFL iBT Writing tests, questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews. The study investigated the alignment between TOEFL iBT Writing tasks and university writing practices, as well as test performance and teacher and student perceptions of the test’s appropriateness, as part of procedures for student admissions. Although TOEFL iBT Writing tasks aligned well with content course expectations, they differed from typical English language classroom practices, which tended to focus on surface-level skills. Both students and teachers generally viewed TOEFL iBT Writing tasks positively. However, some concerns were raised about the difficulty of the integrated writing task, particularly for students unfamiliar with the format or struggling with the listening input. Test scores and qualitative data suggested that although many students possessed adequate English writing skills for academic study, a minority experienced real difficulties. This raised questions about current institutional English-medium instruction policies. Despite overall positive perceptions among participants, adopting TOEFL iBT as an entry measure may face resistance due to social, cultural, and political factors associated with using a foreign-made test designed for North American settings. The study’s findings have implications for curriculum development and English language teaching practices in South Asian higher education contexts. Suggested citation: Green, A., Dawadi, S., Kukulska-Hulme, A., Giri, R. A., Khan, R., & Mahapatra S. (2026). The relationship between the TOEFL iBT® test and academic writing practices in English-medium universities in South Asia: Case studies from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (TOEFL® Research Report No. RR-108). https://doi.org/10.64634/3ng15y64
Redefining Collaboration: A Framework for Skill Development in K–12 Education
Successful collaboration in civic life, the workplace, and educational contexts requires that students have opportunities to develop collaboration skills through early educational and extracurricular experiences. To support this goal, a collaboration framework must clearly define the construct, articulate its dimensions as distinct yet interconnected indicators of the subskill, and provide observable behavioral examples. Such a framework enables educators to guide instruction, support formative and summative assessment, and promote students’ ongoing growth in developing collaboration skills. This paper draws on existing collaboration frameworks, state-adopted competency standards, and assessment practices to propose a theoretical framework for defining and identifying evidence of collaboration in K-12 education, with a specific focus on high school learners. The framework proposes three subskills, corresponding subskill indicators, and examples of behaviors across learning contexts. We further explore considerations for implementation, including alignment with curricular goals, equitable access to opportunities for skill demonstration, and other practical considerations for integration into classroom settings. This work provides a foundation for developing and assessing collaboration skills, by highlighting the complex and context-dependent nature of collaboration, discussing the importance of considering technology-enhanced assessments, and recognizing the need for culturally responsive adaptations to ensure relevance and fairness in assessing this critical skill. Suggested citation: Courey, K. A., Liu, L., Ober, T., & Renfrow-Symon, E. (in press). Redefining Collaboration: A Framework for Skill Development in K–12 Education. ETS Research Report Series. https://doi.org/10.64634/pdzqfj39
Mapping TOEIC® Link™ Scores to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
This study maps TOEIC® Link™ assessment scores to levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages based on the judgments of a panel of experts. The Bookmark method was used to map the TOEIC Link assessments containing multiple-choice items (listening and reading), whereas the Expected Task Score method was used to map the assessments containing constructed-response items (speaking and writing). The panelists reported high levels of agreement, comfort with the panelist-recommended cut scores, and satisfaction with the standard setting process. A few small poststudy adjustments were made in the interest of congruence among ETS English proficiency assessments with common items or overlapping task types. Suggested citation: Hille, K., Schmidgall, J., Oh, S., & Ohta, R. (2026). Mapping TOEIC® Link™ scores to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Research memorandum No. RM-26-04). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/4amdns26
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
An Approach for Personalizing Accommodations in Digital Content Assessments for Multilingual Learners
In this research memorandum, we propose a practical approach for personalizing accommodations for multilingual learners in digital content assessments (e.g., mathematics, science). We begin by providing background information about multilingual learners in U.S. public schools and the accommodations commonly used in content assessments. Next, we describe our personalized approach to assigning accommodations to multilingual learners, which we believe is not only effective but also feasible to implement. This approach includes specific actions before, during, and after the assessment. We then provide a sample use case to illustrate how this approach works in practice. Finally, we outline the empirical evidence needed to validate this approach, further supporting its effectiveness. Suggested citation: López, A. A., Gu, L., & Zapata-Rivera, D. (2026). An approach for personalizing accommodations in digital content assessments for multilingual learners (Research Memorandum No. RM–26-05). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/and9sy26
Alignment of the TOEIC Bridge® Tests With the Educational Functioning Level Descriptors for English as a Second Language
This report presents the findings of an alignment study evaluating the extent to which the TOEIC Bridge® tests reflect the language knowledge, skills, and abilities described in the National Reporting System (NRS) educational functioning level descriptors for English as a second language (ESL). The study was intended to provide critical validity evidence supporting the use of these assessments in adult education programs serving ESL learners, particularly for purposes of NRS accountability. Results indicate strong evidence of content alignment across all test forms examined. The report details the research-based methodology and offers practical recommendations for the effective use of the TOEIC Bridge tests in the NRS. Suggested citation: Wolf, M. K., & Ohta, R. (2026). Alignment of the TOEIC Bridge® tests with the educational functioning level descriptors for English as a second language (Research Memorandum No. RM-26-03). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/1n934x31
AutoSSD: A System for Automated Detection of Similar Speech Responses in Language Tests
Evaluating spoken language proficiency stands as a pivotal component of language assessment. A well-known method for cheating in spoken language tests involves reciting pre-scripted responses. This paper describes a system developed to detect this type of cheating, called the Automated Speech Similarity Detector (AutoSSD). AutoSSD leverages artificial intelligence (AI) transcription to convert spoken responses into texts. It then calculates various metrics of verbatim similarity between the texts, flags pairs whose similarity levels exceed set thresholds, and provides an interactive interface for a subsequent expert review. Our system has proven effective in practical operation, and our findings can help other spoken language assessments bolster their test security measures. Suggested citation: Fauss, M., Hao, J., Li, C., Palmer, M., & Choi, I. (2026). AutoSSD: A system for automated detection of similar speech responses in language tests (Research Memorandum No. RM-26-02). ETS. <a id="menurh3j" class="fui-Link ___1q1shib f2hkw1w f3rmtva f1ewtqcl fyind8e f1k6fduh f1w7gpdv fk6fouc fjoy568 figsok6 f1s184ao f1mk8lai fnbmjn9 f1o700av f13mvf36 f1cmlufx f9n3di6 f1ids18y f1tx3yz7 f1deo86v f1eh06m1 f1iescvh fhgqx19 f1olyrje f1p93eir f1nev41a f1h8hb77 f1lqvz6u f10aw75t fsle3fq f17ae5zn" title="https://doi.org/10.64634/1g0whg02" href="https://doi.org/10.64634/1g0whg02" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener" aria-label="Link https://doi.org/10.64634/1g0whg02">https://doi.org/10.64634/1g0whg02
Second Language Writing Processes in the TOEFL iBT® Test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion Task Using Eye-Tracking, Keystroke Logging, and Stimulated Recall
The present study investigates the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT® writing test and focuses on the writing processes elicited by the Write for an Academic Discussion (WAD) task. Nineteen adult L2 English users completed the WAD task while their eye movements and keystrokes were recorded, followed by stimulated recall interviews to capture their writing strategies and thought processes. Eye-tracking data revealed sustained attention to the writing window, with frequent reference to the task question and example posts. Keystroke logging indicated substantial initial pauses and language-related revision behaviors. Qualitative analysis of stimulated recalls identified five core cognitive processes: prompt (re)reading, planning, formulation, monitoring, and revision. The integration of eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall demonstrates that the WAD task engages L2 writers in processes consistent with theoretical models of academic writing, supplying backing for the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT Writing test. The findings also reveal that task design features may influence L2 writing processes and shape writers’ strategic behaviors and attention allocation. Suggested citation: Hsieh, C.-N., & Ohta, R. (in press). Second language writing processes in the TOEFL iBT® test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion task using eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall (Research Report). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/tk1sd682
On the Representation of Racial and Ethnic Subgroups in AI-generated Texts: A Case Study in Automated Essay Scoring
In this study, we assess the capability of LLMs in generating essays of a specific race/ethnicity after being given example essays and rubric, and investigate the efficacy of data augmented in this manner for Automated Essay Scoring with respect to model performance and bias. In a series of experiments, we use models GPT-4 and GPT-4o, and ask them to generate essays from a given subgroup after inferring the race/ethnicity of the writer. We find that while LLMs can be directed to generate essays for specific demographic groups, the inferred racial and ethnic distribution in the generated data does not closely mirror the actual distribution observed in the source dataset. We augment existing data for underrepresented subgroups with LLM generated data separated into two groups with correct LLM race prediction and with incorrect race prediction and assess the improvement in agreement with human scores with quadratic weighted Kappa and bias mitigation as change in standardized mean difference. Our analysis shows that while LLMs struggle to predict the race accurately from given samples, augmentation with such data can be helpful to mitigate bias regardless. Suggested citation: Badola, A., Zhang, M., & Li, Chen. (in press). On the representation of racial and ethnic subgroups in AI-generated texts: A case study in automated essay scoring. ETS Research Report Series. https://doi.org/10.64634/ac01td58
TOEIC® Link™ Assessments Technical Manual
This technical manual provides a comprehensive overview of the TOEIC® Link™ assessments, offering detailed insights into their purpose, design, and intended users. The manual begins with an introduction that outlines the assessment objectives and target audience. Subsequent sections delve into the specific constructs and tasks of the four TOEIC Link assessments: Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing. The remaining sections examine the design and development processes for both the listening and reading, as well as the speaking and writing assessments, highlighting methodologies used to ensure validity and reliability. Together, these sections present a thorough guide for test users and stakeholders seeking to understand the TOEIC Link assessments and their application in measuring English language proficiency. Designed as a living document, this manual will be updated as the test’s design, administration, scoring, and evidence of measurement quality (including reliability, validity, and fairness) evolve, along with its intended uses. Suggested citation: Cid, J., Schmidgall, J., & Park, E. (2026). TOEIC® Link™ assessments technical manual (Research Report No. RR-26-04). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/7e2pzg04
Beyond Score Correlations: A Content Comparison of IELTS Academic and TOEFL iBT® Tests in the Context of a Score Concordance Study
Score concordance tables are widely used by higher education institutions to compare scores from different English language proficiency tests, yet their validity depends on the extent to which the tests measure comparable constructs. This study examines the content comparability of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) Academic and TOEFL iBT® tests in the context of a recent co-sponsored score concordance study. Moving beyond score correlations, the analysis compares test content across the four language skills—reading, listening, writing, and speaking—using published research, official test documentation, and publicly available sample materials. The comparison is framed by the validity frameworks adopted by each test provider and focuses on task characteristics, linguistic demands, response formats, and scoring criteria. Results indicate substantial overlap in the constructs assessed by both tests, particularly in reading and writing, where tasks target similar academic language skills and are evaluated using comparable criteria. More pronounced differences emerge in listening and speaking, with TOEFL iBT placing greater emphasis on academic content, integrated skills, and pragmatic inference, while IELTS includes more general listening contexts and examiner-mediated interaction in speaking. Despite these differences, both tests provide multiple opportunities for test takers to engage with extended discourse and demonstrate receptive and productive language abilities. Overall, the findings support the use of score concordance tables between IELTS Academic and TOEFL iBT, while emphasizing the need for cautious interpretation and recognition that scores should not be treated as fully interchangeable. Suggested citation: Cushing, S. T. (2026). Beyond score correlations: A content comparison of IELTS Academic and TOEFL iBT® tests in the context of a score concordance study (TOEFL Research Report No. RR-107). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/qercg225
The Algorithm at the Gate: Exploring Ethical Tensions in Graduate Admissions
As generative artificial intelligence (AI) rapidly reshapes how information is created, shared, and evaluated, graduate admissions professionals are confronting new questions about its role in recruitment and selection. This report draws upon ETS’s February 2025 pulse survey of NAGAP members to explore how graduate enrollment management (GEM) professionals are navigating this evolving landscape. We present their perspectives on the acceptable use of AI in graduate admissions—both by institutions and by applicants—and highlight emerging norms and tensions. The report concludes with a discussion on the implications of these findings for GEM policies and practice.
Toward an Automatic Method for Generating Topical Vocabulary Test Forms for Specific Reading Passages
Background knowledge is typically needed for successful comprehension of topical and domain-specific reading passages, such as in the STEM domains. However, there are few automated measures of student knowledge that can be readily deployed and scored in time to make predictions on whether a given student will likely be able to understand a specific content-area text. In this research report, we present our effort in developing the K-tool, an automated system for generating topical vocabulary tests that measure students’ background knowledge related to a specific text. The system automatically detects the topic of a given text and produces topical vocabulary items based on their relationship with the topic. This information is used to automatically generate background knowledge forms that contain words that are highly related to the topic and words that share similar features but do not share high associations to the topic. Prior research has indicated that performance on such tasks can help determine whether a student is likely to understand a particular text based on their knowledge state. The described system is intended for use with middle and high school student populations of native speakers of English. It is designed to handle single reading passages and is not dependent on any corpus or text collection. In this report, we describe the system architecture and present an initial evaluation of the system outputs. Suggested citation: Flor, M., Wang, Z., Deane, P., & O’Reilly, T. (2025). Toward an automatic method for generating topical vocabulary test forms for specific reading passages (Research Report No. RR-26-02). ETS.
A Preliminary Research and Evaluation Agenda for Personalized Assessment in the Service of Equity
This research memorandum describes a preliminary research and evaluation agenda for personalized assessments, where such assessments are intended to be attuned to the social, cultural, and other relevant characteristics of individuals and the contexts from which they come. The agenda targets the full range of assessment uses—school accountability, national and international assessment, admissions, certification and licensure, and instructional planning. The purposes of the agenda are to guide the theoretical and empirical research and development needed to create personalized assessments and to suggest a means for judging the effectiveness of those instruments. Suggested citation: Bennett, R. E., Sparks, J. R., Arslan, B., Lehman, B., Sinharay, S., & Zapata-Rivera, D. (2025). A preliminary research and evaluation agenda for personalized assessment in the service of equity (Research Memorandum No. RM-26-01). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/wjv5e895
Keep Calm and Carry On: A Conceptual Framework for Perseverance
Perseverance is a highly valued durable skill—a set of constructs also referred to as socioemotional skills, noncognitive constructs, transferrable skills, and 21st century skills, among other terms—as it describes one’s ability to manage challenges and obstacles in academic, workplace, and other life areas. As part of a new critical skills taxonomy designed to include academic and employability skills beyond traditional academic content knowledge, our novel conceptual framework of perseverance addresses the ambiguities of previous perseverance definitions. Specifically, our perseverance definition includes two subskills: emotional resilience and effortful persistence. We approach conceptualization with an eye towards relevance for youth settings (e.g., pre-kindergarten–Grade 12). We also compare this conceptual framework to previous definitions and distinguish it from overlapping constructs. We then describe each subskill’s relevance to outcomes across various settings. Additional implications of our conceptual framework, including measurement considerations and malleability, are discussed. Suggested citation: Williams, K. M., Ling, G., Sotelo, J., Brantley, W., Wang, Y., & Kinsey, D. (2026). Keep calm and carry on: A conceptual framework for perseverance (Research Report No. RR-26-01). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/5qd2rx29
Using Ordinal Rescore Measures to Monitor Rater Drift
When constructed response items are used on more than one occasion, a natural concern is whether the scoring is consistent (e.g., not more lenient or strict) across the occasions. It is common to conduct trend scoring, in which a set of Occasion A responses are rescored at Occasion B. The responses are usually selected according to some rescore design, such as being balanced (with an equal number from each score category), proportional to the distribution of Occasion A scores, or a mixed version of these two designs. Recent work has demonstrated that treating the two-way table as if it arose from multinomial sampling is incorrect and can yield seriously biased estimates of whether the scores are lower or higher at Occasion B. The present study builds on these results by incorporating ordinal measures of change. It contrasts the usual trend analysis with an alternative analysis that explicitly conditions on the rescore design and finds only the latter to be effective. Omnibus measures based on combining the individual t-tests or d-statistics are examined. Measures were somewhat conservative in Type I error control and had good power to detect drift. Omnibus measures based on t-tests had marginally higher power, having higher correct detection rates than those based on the d-statistic in 1%–8% of the cases. The difference between the best versions (E weighted, which is based on t-tests, vs. D weighted, which is based on d-statistics) was only 1.8%. Suggested citation: Donoghue, J. R., & Sgammato, A. (2025). Using ordinal rescore measures to monitor rater drift (Research Report No. RR-25-15). ETS.
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Graduate Admissions After Affirmative Action: Results From the ETS/NAGAP 2024 Admissions Survey
On the tail of changes to testing policies and other graduate admissions practices through the COVID-19 era, 2023 saw a further major change in the admissions landscape through the U.S. Supreme Court’s striking down of race-based affirmative action in admissions processes through the Students for Fair Admissions (SFFA) cases. The ETS Research Institute and NAGAP, the Association for Graduate Enrollment Management, partnered on research to understand how this ruling is affecting interest holders and, in particular, how it has affected practices of holistic admissions, which have often been defined with respect to the explicit goal of promoting diversity (see, e.g., Glazer et al., 2014). This research note focuses on the viewpoints of graduate admissions officers and department leaders surveyed in 2024 on the effects they expected to see from the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on affirmative action in admissions processes and on the reactions that they were seeing at their own institutions. Suggested citation: Gooch, R., & Haviland, S. (2025). Graduate admissions after affirmative action: Results from the 2024 ETS/NAGAP Survey (Research Notes). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/5s9fnm23
Preparing K–12 Students With AI Literacy: Proposed Framework, Progression, and Task Design Principles
This paper presents a conceptual framework for AI literacy, a hypothesized learning progression, and assessment design principles for advancing AI literacy among K–12 learners. Recognizing the importance of technical competencies alongside ethical awareness, the framework integrates foundational knowledge, societal implications, and practical applications of AI. Key competencies include ethical decision-making, AI-powered collaboration, and critical evaluation of AI outputs. Developed through an evidence-centered design (ECD) process involving a review of existing literature and frameworks, the proposed AI literacy framework and progression maps a hypothesized trajectory of students’ skill development, providing a structured pathway for improvement with behavior indicators connected to core AI literacy subskills. In this way, the framework and progression may offer educators a roadmap to apply scaffolded and differentiated teaching strategies that actively foster learners’ skill acquisition. To further support connections between assessment and instruction, we introduce three design principles for task design: ensuring relevance to learners, minimizing barriers to resource access, and providing opportunities for skill advancement. These design principles may guide the creation of activities that evaluate and enhance students’ AI literacy. By aligning scaffolded assessments and learning activities with the progression, this framework bridges instruction, assessment, and students’ skill development. It ultimately may be used to support students in developing skills to critically and ethically engage with AI technologies, preparing them to navigate the digital landscape by fostering inclusive instruction that deepens students’ understanding of AI concepts. Chakraburty, S., Ober, T. M., & Liu, L. (2025). Preparing K–12 students with AI literacy: Proposed framework, progression, and task design principles (Research Report No. RR-25-14). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/46jn1p41
An Evaluation of Item Fit Based on Generalized Residual Item Response Functions
Evaluation of item ft for item response theory (IRT) models often involves a comparison of the observed and expected item response functions (IRFs). Several statistics have been suggested for evaluating item ft based on the discrepancy between IRFs, but the asymptotic distributions of the statistics under the null hypothesis are often not well established. Haberman et al. developed a method for evaluating the ft of IRFs based on generalized residuals. These residuals are functions of the latent proficiency variable in the IRT model and follow the standard normal distribution asymptotically. We develop a method to summarize these generalized residuals into a single summary statistic for each item and evaluate its asymptotic distribution. Kondratek suggested a similar Wald-type statistic, but without accounting for the uncertainty in the estimation of the item parameters. Our method combines the work of Haberman and Kondratek, resulting in a single ft statistic per item while accounting for estimation error. A series of simulations was carried out to investigate the performance of our statistic and compare it to several popular item ft statistics. Our method resulted in similar Type I errors as Kondratek’s statistic, with slightly better results in the case of small samples. Furthermore, the recovery was consistent across different levels of item difficulty, and power of the new item ft statistic was relatively low, except for problematic individual items, but this result was found with two competing statistics as well. Suggested citation: Liao, X., van Rijn, P., & Sinharay, S. (2025). An evaluation of item fit based on generalized residual item response functions (Research Report No. RR-25-13). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/b68vz316
This technical manual describes the purpose and intended uses of the TOEFL iBT test, its target test-taker population, and relevant language use domains. The test design and scoring procedures are presented first, followed by a research agenda intended to support the interpretation and use of test scores. Given the updates to the test starting January 2026, this technical manual is intended to serve as an overview and rationale for the test design as well as a reference point for informing investigations of validity evidence to support the intended test uses over time. Designed as a living document, this manual will be updated as the test's design, administration, scoring, and evidence of measurement quality (including reliability, validity, and fairness) evolve, along with its intended uses. Suggested citation: Manna, V. F., Li, S., Papageorgiou, S., & Gu, L. (2025). TOEFL iBT® technical manual (TOEFL Research Report No. RR-106). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/eje8f497
Pathways to Graduate School: 5. A Data Overview of U.S. Prospective Graduate Students by Black Students and Gender
One understudied segment of the domestic talent pool is the Black or African American individuals who are U.S. citizens and aspire to earn a graduate degree. Gender differences within this talent pool are specifically understudied. The 101,039 individuals who are U.S. citizens, who provided gender and race/ethnicity information, and who had scores on all three GRE® measures are the subjects for this descriptive study, one of a series of five such reports. GRE data from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2021, supplemented with U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Census data, are analyzed. These individuals, referred to as prospective graduate students (PGS), are examined through six core questions: (a) Who were the PGS? (b) Where did they reside? (c) What were their education and work experiences? (d) What were their undergraduate experiences? (e) What were their plans for graduate study? and (f) What were their emerging graduate school choice sets? Key findings include the following: (a) 34% were 22 years of age or younger; (b) 37% were currently enrolled in college; (c) 75% attended an institution in their home state, with women doing so slightly more than men; (d) 46% were first-generation college students; (e) nearly 60% were Pell Grant–eligible; (f) as undergraduates, women favored life sciences, while men leaned toward physical sciences and engineering; (g) women were slightly more interested in master’s degrees; and (h) 76% included at least one in-state institution in their graduate school choice sets. The report concludes with recommendations for future research and practical applications, particularly in the graduate school application process. Suggested citation: Millett, C. M. (2025). Pathways to graduate school: 5. A data overview of U.S. prospective graduate students by Black students and gender (Research Report No. GRE-25-05). ETS.
Pathways to Graduate School: 4. A Data Overview of U.S. Prospective Graduate Students by Pell Grant Eligibility and Gender
Today, the Federal Pell Grant program is ubiquitous in conversations about how to pay for undergraduate education. Since 1982, it has supported more than 212 million students, making it a cornerstone of higher education access in the United States. However, what happens next for Pell Grant recipients who earn bachelor’s degrees—especially when pursuing graduate study—remains largely unexplored. This knowledge gap leaves questions unanswered about how gender and financial need shape the path beyond college. The 673,573 individuals who are U.S. citizens, who provided gender and their undergraduate Pell Grant eligibility information, and who had scores on all three GRE® General Test measures are the subjects for this descriptive study, one of a series of five such reports. GRE General Test data from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2021, supplemented with U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Census data, are analyzed. These individuals, referred to as prospective graduate students (PGS), are examined through six core questions: (a) Who were the PGS? (b) Where did they reside? (c) What were their education and work experiences? (d) What were their undergraduate experiences? (e) What were their plans for graduate study? and (f) What were their emerging graduate school choice sets? Key findings include the following: (a) 50% of Pell-eligible PGS were White, and 75% of non-Pell-eligible PGS were White; (b) fewer Pell-eligible PGS were enrolled in college; (c) more Pell-eligible PGS were enrolled at in-state institutions; (d) substantially more Pell-eligible PGS were first-generation college students compared to their non-Pell-eligible peers; (e) more men than women in both Pell eligibility profiles majored in the physical sciences and engineering than in the life sciences; (f) more than 90% of PGS of both Pell eligibility profiles earned a 3.0 or higher grade point average in their undergraduate majors; and (g) most PGS were considering at least one graduate school in their states of residence. The report concludes with recommendations for future research and practical applications, particularly in the graduate school application process. Suggested citation: Millett, C. M. (2025). Pathways to graduate school: 4. A data overview of U.S. prospective graduate students by Pell Grant eligibility and gender (Research Report No. GRE-25-04). ETS.
Pathways to Graduate School: 3. A Data Overview of U.S. Prospective Graduate Students by Parental Education and Gender
Having parents with higher educational attainment is associated with many positive academic outcomes for students (e.g., college enrollment, degree attainment). This study aims to raise awareness and promote understanding of the characteristics, aspirations, and graduate degree intentions of students who are considering graduate school, particularly through the lens of parental education and gender. Three distinct groups are profiled: no parent bachelor of arts (BA), one parent BA, and one parent BA+. The 980,903 individuals who are U.S. citizens, provided gender and parent educational attainment information, and had scores on all three GRE® General Test measures are the subjects for this descriptive study, one of a series of five such reports. GRE General Test data from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2021, supplemented with U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Census data, are analyzed. These individuals, referred to as prospective graduate students (PGS), are examined through six core questions: (a) Who were the PGS? (b) Where did they reside? (c) What were their education and work experiences? (d) What were their undergraduate experiences? (e) What were their plans for graduate study? and (f) What were their emerging graduate school choice sets? Key findings include the following: (a) The percentage of White PGS increased as parental education increased; (b) more than 50% of PGS from all three parental education groups live in 10 states; (c) Federal Pell Grant eligibility decreased as parental education increased; (d) approximately half of PGS in each parental education group majored in a science, technology, engineering, or mathematics field, with notable gender differences; (e) more than 90% of PGS across all parental education groups reported a B or higher undergraduate major grade point average; (f) a master’s degree was the most common degree objective among all three parental education profiles; (g) most PGS were considering attending at least one graduate school in their home state; and (h) 41% of PGS included at least one minority-serving institution in their graduate school choice sets. The report concludes with recommendations for future research and practical applications, particularly in the graduate school application process. Suggested citation: Millett, C. M. (2025). Pathways to graduate school: 3. A data overview of U.S. prospective graduate students by parental education and gender (Research Report No. GRE-25-03). ETS.
Pathways to Graduate School: 2. Data Overview of U.S. Prospective Graduate Students by Hispanic Subgroup and Gender
While discussions around increasing diversity often focus on attracting a broad range of students, the unique needs and challenges of specific groups—such as Hispanic graduate school aspirants—are frequently overlooked. This oversight is problematic given the growing demographic significance of Hispanic individuals in the United States and their underrepresentation in the highest levels of academia. Hispanic graduate students represent a small but vital part of America’s future intellectual capital. Even less frequently explored is the rich heterogeneity of Hispanic graduate school aspirations, with a particular focus on Hispanic subgroup differences and gender. The 120,445 individuals who are U.S. citizens, who provided gender and race/ethnicity information, and had scores on all three GRE® General Test measures are the subjects for this descriptive study, one of a series of five such reports. GRE General Test data from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2021, supplemented with U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Census data, are analyzed. These individuals, referred to as prospective graduate students (PGS), are examined through six core questions: (a) Who were the PGS? (b) Where did they reside? (c) What were their education and work experiences? (d) What were their undergraduate experiences? (e) What were their plans for graduate study? and (f) What were their emerging graduate school choice sets? Key findings include the following: (a) For Mexican, Puerto Rican, and other Hispanic PGS, roughly 68% are 25 years of age or younger, with many being under 22 years of age; (b) the three Hispanic PGS groups share six states where they reside in high numbers, but each subgroup has at least one unique state where they are present in significant numbers; (c) across the three groups, more than two-thirds attended a public or private baccalaureate institution in their states of residence; (d) parental education varied across three groups; (e) in all three Hispanic subgroups, more men than women majored in physical sciences and engineering, while more women than men majored in the life sciences; (f) a master’s degree was the most common graduate degree objective, with greater interest for women than for men; and (g) there were considerable differences across the three groups regarding including at least one minority-serving institution in their graduate school choice sets. The report concludes with recommendations for future research and practical applications, particularly in the graduate school application process. Suggested citation: Millett, C. M. (2025). Pathways to graduate school: 2. A data overview of U.S. prospective graduate students by Hispanic subgroup and gender (Research Report No. GRE-25-02). ETS.
Pathways to Graduate School: 1. A Data Overview of U.S. Women Prospective Graduate Students—Profiles of Nine Racial Groups
Understanding the diverse pathways women take toward graduate education is crucial but often overlooked. When these journeys are presented, they are typically compared to men’s experiences, which can obscure the unique challenges and opportunities women face. This descriptive research study, one of five reports, aims to provide a comprehensive profile of U.S. women who may pursue graduate study, disaggregated by race/ethnicity. Nine distinct profiles of women, based on race/ethnicity, are presented. The 698,298 women who provided gender and race/ethnicity information and had scores for all three GRE® test measures are the subjects. GRE General Test data from July 1, 2016, to June 30, 2021, supplemented with U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Census data, are analyzed. These women, referred to as prospective graduate students (PGS), are examined through six core questions: (a) Who were the women PGS? (b) Where did they reside? (c) What were their education and work experiences? (d) What were their undergraduate experiences? (e) What were their plans for graduate study? and (f) What were their emerging graduate school choice sets? Key findings include the following: (a) The majority of women PGS across the nine profiles lived in 10 states, however, the composition of these 10 states varied by group; (b) two out of five women PGS were enrolled in college, with considerable variation across the nine racial profiles; (c) across the profiles, there was a 40 percentage point difference in having no parent with a bachelor’s degree, ranging from 68% of Mexican women to 28% of White women; (d) 33% of women PGS reported being eligible for a Federal Pell Grant, ranging from 24% of White women to 60% of Black women; (e) women across the nine profiles were comparable in majoring in the physical sciences or engineering as undergraduates but differed substantially in majoring in life sciences; and (f) 32% of all women PGS considered a regional comprehensive university in their state of residence for graduate school, with notable variation, ranging from 42% of Mexican women to 28% of Asian women. Suggested citation: Millett, C. M. (2025). Pathways to graduate school: 1. A data overview of U.S. women prospective graduate students—Profiles of nine racial groups (Research Report No. GRE-25-01). ETS.
Navigating the Digital Horizon: A Proposed Framework and Strategies for Assessing Digital Literacy
Digital literacy skills are essential for success in today’s social, academic, and professional environments. This paper introduces a digital literacy framework, outlining key subskills and skill indicators for high school students, grounded in prior research and K–12 educational standards. We examine the implementation of digital literacy assessments in K–12 education and offer recommendations for their integration into educational systems. Our goal is to support the thoughtful development, assessment, and feedback processes necessary to foster students’ digital literacy skills. Suggested citation: Liu, L., Courey, K. A., Kinsey, D., Ober, T. M., & Johnson, D. G. (2025). Navigating the digital horizon: A proposed framework and strategies for assessing digital literacy (Research Report No. RR-25-06). ETS.
Communication as a Future Ready Skill: A Proposed Framework and Strategies for Assessment
Effective communication skills are essential for success in both academic and professional contexts. This concept paper presents a novel framework designed to operationally define and support the development of assessments of communication skills with a specific emphasis on K–12 settings. Through discussions on important considerations for the conceptualization, development, implementation, and use of assessments of communication skills, this paper aims to equip educators and interest holders with insights to foster effective assessment practices of communication skills. Ultimately, we hope this framework may support the identification, development, and assessment of communication skills among school-age learners as we strive to empower students to navigate and excel in the future. Suggested citation: Ober, T. M., Johnson, D. G., Liu, L., Kinsey, D., & Courey, K. A. (2025). Communication as a future ready skill: A proposed framework and strategies for assessments (Research Report No. RR-25-05). ETS.
Improving the Quality of Numeracy Skills: Progressing from Level 2 to Level 4 on the PIAAC Cycle 2 Proficiency: An ETS Return on Investment Study: Phase 1
This research memorandum highlights the collaborative efforts of the numeracy panel for the ETS Return on Investment (ROI) Study, Phase 1, comprising David (Dave) Tout, Kees Hoogland, and Javier Díez-Palomar, in developing their research memorandum, Improving the Quality of Numeracy Skills: Progressing from Level 2 to Level 4 on the PIAAC Cycle 2 Proficiency Scale. This memorandum captures the expert opinions of the panel sessions. Suggested citation: Tout, D., Hoogland, K., & Díez-Palomar, J. (2025). Improving the quality of numeracy skills: Progressing from Level 2 to Level 4 on the PIAAC Cycle 2 proficiency scale: An ETS return on investment study, Phase 1 (Research Memorandum No. RM-25-02). ETS.
Literacy Skills at and Around Level 2 of the PIAAC Cycle 2 Proficiency Scale An ETS Return on Investment Study: Phase 1
This research memorandum highlights the collaborative efforts of the literacy panel for the ETS Return on Investment (ROI) Study, Phase 1, comprising Jean-François Rouet, M. Anne Britt & Tobias Richter, in developing their research memorandum, Literacy Skills at and Around Level 2 of the PIAAC Cycle 2 Proficiency Scale. This memorandum captures the expert opinions from the panel sessions. Suggested citation: Rouet, J.-F., Britt, A., & Richter, T. (2025). Literacy skills at and around Level 2 of the PIAAC Cycle 2 proficiency scale: An ETS return on investment study, Phase 1 (Research Memorandum No. RM-25-01). ETS.
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